Introduction
While plastic waste gets a lot of attention, there is another waste epidemic all around us – textile waste. From the clothes we outgrow to the fast fashion trends we abandon after a single wear, piles of discarded garments silently accumulate, often out of sight but never out of impact. However, the problem doesn’t begin or end with waste. The environmental toll of textile production is equally alarming, especially in India, where cotton farming guzzles water and relies heavily on chemical fertilisers and pesticides, depleting soil health and polluting water sources. Combined with the energy-intensive processes of dyeing and manufacturing, which release toxic effluents into rivers, the entire value chain of textiles leaves a lasting environmental footprint.
Textile waste is not just about old clothes; it reflects our consumerist habits and the environmental price of convenience. Much of this waste is non-biodegradable, infused with toxic dyes, or bound by synthetic fibres that take centuries to decompose. Burning or landfilling such materials exacerbates pollution, while untreated wastewater from textile production continues to contaminate ecosystems. Beneath its colourful surface, the problem of textile waste in India is a tapestry of unsustainable practices woven with threads of neglect – stretching from the farm to our closets and ultimately to overflowing landfills. Addressing this issue demands a rethink of both production processes and consumer behaviour, opening pathways for recycling, innovation, and sustainable alternatives.
The Indian textile industry
With a rich history of fabrics, India has been a global force in textiles for centuries. Even today, the textile industry is one of the largest in the country contributing 2.3% to the country’s GDP, 13% to industrial production and 12% to exports. India has a 4% share of the global trade in textiles and apparel. In employment terms, the textile industry plays an even more significant role by being the 2nd largest employer in the country and providing direct employment to 45 Million people and 100 Million people in allied industries.
Natural Fibres
India is the largest producer of cotton globally. Over 6 Million cotton farmers and 40-50 Million people are engaged in related activities such as cotton processing & trade. India’s estimated cotton production is 5.84 MMT during 2022-23 (~24% of global production). India is also the 2nd largest consumer of cotton in the world with an estimated consumption of 5.29 MMT (~22% of global consumption). India is also among the top jute and silk producers in the world.
Man Made (Synthetic) Fibres
Man Made Fibers (MMFs) are categorised into two types: synthetic and cellulosic fibres. Synthetic fibres, such as polyester, acrylic, and polypropylene, are derived from crude oil, while cellulosic fibres are produced from wood pulp. Polyester and viscose, the two main types of MMFs, account for approximately 94% of the volume, with polyester representing around 77.5% and viscose making up the remainder.
Over the years, polyester has gained popularity for being lightweight, wrinkle-resistant, durable, and affordable. In April 2019, polyester yarn in India cost ₹105 per kg, much cheaper than cotton yarn at ₹213 per kg.
The cost of manufacturing textiles in India is among the lowest globally, making it an attractive destination for investment. India’s MMF textile exports are expected to grow by 75%, reaching US $11.4 billion by 2030, up from approximately US $6.5 billion in 2021-22.
They will increase further due to the standardisation and promotion of technical textiles in India.
Textile Industry: Socio-environmental Impact during production and manufacturing
Producing 1kg of cotton in India requires an average of 22,500 litres of water, significantly higher than the global average of 10,000 litres per kg. This excessive water footprint is driven by inefficient water use, high pesticide usage and severe water pollution. Most cotton in India is grown in arid regions, where government subsidies for electric pumps allow unrestricted groundwater extraction, leading to unsustainable water usage and added strain on electrical grids. In addition, cotton is infamous for its extensive pesticide usage. Cotton production uses 2.5% of the world’s arable land, but accounts for 16% of all pesticides used. In India, 50% of all pesticides are used for cotton production.
Source: Map of Top 10 Cotton Producing States of India
Processing of textile fibres into yarn and then, subsequently, garments is also an environmentally intensive process using large amounts of energy, water and chemicals. A variety of chemicals are used throughout the process, especially in dyeing. India is the third highest user of textile chemicals in the world.
Source: Indian Textile Industry and Its Impact on the Environment and Health: A Review
Synthetic fibres like polyester are derived from fossil fuels contributing to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. It is estimated that the fossil fuel industry is responsible for 10% of global carbon dioxide emissions.
Synthetic fibres are also a major source of microplastic pollution, shedding microfibers during wear, washing, and disposal. Each wash can release up to 1.5 million microfibers, particularly from materials like polyester fleece. These microfibers, too small to be filtered by conventional wastewater systems, enter rivers and oceans, contributing to an estimated 0.5 million tons of marine microplastic pollution annually. Unlike natural fibres, synthetic microfibers are non-biodegradable, persisting in ecosystems and accumulating in the food chain. They also carry toxic pollutants, amplifying their environmental and health impact
Status of Textile Waste in India
In India, textile waste primarily originates from three main sources:
1) Pre-consumer waste: generated during the manufacturing process before products reach consumers
2) Domestic post-consumer waste: consisting of discarded clothing and household textiles
3) Imported waste: includes second-hand garments and mutilated rags brought into the country.
8.5% of global textile waste, or 7793 kilotons, is accumulated (generated and imported) in India annually. Of this, over 60% comprises cotton and cotton blends. However, there is a rising trend in the use of polyester and other synthetic blends, which now account for approximately 19% of the total waste generated.
Source: India’s untapped potential for circularity of textile waste
The chart below highlights the value chain for polyester emphasising the resources used and waste produced at different stages.
Source: CSE
Opportunities- through a circular textile economy
Textile waste is not solely an end-product issue; it is generated throughout the value chain, impacting both the environment and livelihoods. Integrating circularity through recycling, reuse, and proper disposal not only enhances waste management but also unlocks hidden economic opportunities. These measures can drive sustainability, reduce environmental degradation, and create new avenues for job creation and resource efficiency.
Reuse/ recycling of Existing Textiles: By reusing and recycling discarded textiles, the need for virgin fabric production decreases. This reduces the overall requirement of cotton production and associated environmental impacts while also reducing the need for chemical-intensive processes like dyeing, bleaching, and finishing, which typically involve toxic substances like heavy metals and azo dyes.
Economic Benefits: Transitioning to circular practices could boost recycling efficiency, reducing dependency on virgin raw materials while creating value-added products from waste.
With over 900 recycling units and expertise in sorting and processing textile waste, India is positioned to become a leading circular textile region. Investments in advanced technologies could expand its market share.
Employment Opportunities: An estimated 4 million informal workers are engaged in India’s textile waste sector. Formalizing these systems can improve livelihoods and create additional jobs, particularly for women. It is estimated that for every 1,000 pieces of textile waste that are handled and recycled, approximately 20 green jobs can be created.
Circularity can foster entrepreneurial ventures in waste collection, sorting, and upcycling, opening new revenue streams.
Way forward
The increasing externalities demand a concrete mechanism from the policy side. While there are many policies promoting manufacturing, production and exports, there is a need for policies to incorporate circularity in the sector. A comprehensive framework which looks at the entire value chain starting from sustainable production practices to recycling practices and Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) is the need of the hour.
India’s journey toward implementing EPR in the textile sector highlights both challenges and potential. The recycling of post-consumer textile waste remains a major hurdle due to its diverse material composition and limited recycling infrastructure. While pre-consumer waste is often recycled into yarn for apparel, post-consumer waste typically results in coarser products for industrial use. India’s recently launched Textile Policy, 2024 emphasizes sustainability and innovation but requires further clarity on EPR regulations.
Policies that emphasise the use and reuse of water efficiently must be made for the sustainable use of water, especially in the production process. Regulating the use of toxic chemicals in the form of pesticides and dying is essential. Advanced water treatment plants and treatment of effluents are required to reduce contamination and microplastic pollution in the waterways.
Fast fashion and overconsumption are leading to an increase in textile waste in India. A mixture of traditional values and modern technology can assist in reducing waste in the economy.